In order for players to play a game they must understand how to play. An increase in complexity of game mechanics and controls make this transfer of knowledge paramount to their enjoyment. This is especially true for games that require skill and practice like games that belong to the Fighting genre. Then there is a need to identify approaches to develop better methods to transfer such knowledge, in games this would usually be identified as the tutorial. The following literature review will show difficulties in this transfer and identify that there are solutions from pedagogical theories, some of which can be found in practice.
The need to learn
Many modern games face the same issue of appropriately teaching the player how to play the game. One of the most common solutions is to implement a tutorial that prepares the player for the game, however designing the tutorial is not so simple. Chiapello (2016) describes the challenges a game designer faces when developing tutorials for casual gamers. She defines a spectrum that ranges from casual to hardcore games. Hardcore games are described to have players who are familiar with the genre and have experience with previous games, where as casual gamers have little to no experience concerning games. This is certainly true for fighting games where the mechanics and controls are complex and persist through different games within the same series. As such the tutorials needed for hardcore games rely on previous knowledge, but teaching a casual player is found to be difficult as they do not possess such experience, then the challenge comes from assessing what knowledge the player possesses and how the tutorial should address these needs. Chiapello finds from her research that In-game and contextual tutorials are seemingly popular to aid both parties in tutorial design. She ultimately argues that a pragmatic approach is most suitable, where playing and learning is unified and that is where knowledge is acquired by action.
Becker (2008) also realizes that the nature of video games are complex and that they demand time and effort to learn how to play, even beyond the tutorial. However, she identifies that this complexity can be resolved as good games are able to hold the player’s attention long enough for players to sufficiently learn what they need to engage with the game. She describes these games as being good and that they employ “sound pedagogy” whether intentional or not to aid the player in learning how to play. These instances of sound pedagogy can be found in the design of these games and the successful implementation of sound pedagogy is a major factor in making it a successful game, meaning commercially and critically successful. This shows that there is a link between pedagogical theories and game tutorials, the above can be seen to imply that good games require tutorials that make use of sound pedagogy.
If pedagogical theories are applicable then games could be considered as learning experiences, this certainly applies for the tutorial sections of these games. Fabricatore (2000) places emphasis on how games are in essence a learning environment and reflect that by offering “conditions free of any functional pressure and negative consequences, and constantly faces the player to situations that engender changes” (2000, p.14). Fabricatore finds that the interactions between player and game place importance on information management processes. Failure to do so would bar the player from interacting with the game world, then it can be seen that because games emulate a learning environment that can implement pedagogical theories in their design.
Pedagogy in games
In fact some researchers have identified that some pedagogical theories can already be found in games. Whether this is intentional or not (Becker, 2008, p.94). Dondlinger (2007) found that pedagogical constructivist principles are present in games, this is expressed in the design of games that facilitate a player’s learning by constructing knowledge and in-game objects through “meticulous research and thoughtful design” (Dondlinger, 2007, p.25). Dondlinger also sees Situated Cognition, a pedagogical theory that can act as a framework to study games as games can “situate learning in an authentic context and engage players in a community of practice.” Other pedagogical principles found were Guided Social Constructivist design, Expert Modelling and Coaching and Legitimate peripheral participation. This sentiment of existing pedagogical theories and principles is reflected by Gee (2003). Gee identifies “good learning principles” in games and that they are strongly supported by cognitive science. Gee gives examples of how information is managed and communicated to a player, that is by placing “information inside the worlds the players move through, and make clear the meaning of such information and how it applies to that world.” (Gee, 2003. P.2). Gee also demonstrates the assimilation of new knowledge, this phenomena being a prevalent part of Constructivism. Then Constructivist pedagogical theories and the associated methods can be considered as core elements to designing games that are capable of teaching players to engage successfully with the game.
Constructivist approaches are
As shown, a constructivist approach seems to be prevalent in games where literature has found it. Then it would be useful to identify what a constructivist approach would be composed of. Hannafin, M. and Hannafin, K. (2009) identify the Constructivist approach as an apporach that derives meaning “from and interpreted through individual beliefs, experiences and social contexts.” This is to say that learners who use constructivism are able to build from previous knowledge much like the intended audience of hardcore games as identified by Chiapello(2016). Hirtle, J (1996) extends Constructivism with a social direction, revealing one of the primary goals is to provide a democratic and critical learning experience. Through a video game context it can be seen that a constructivist approach empowers the player to choose what to learn and derive their own meaning from knowledge imparted from a game.
Another pedagogical approach
The most prominent pedagogical theory so far seems to be Constructivism, however there is another theory that seems to be useful for game designers. Aini Syed Ahmad et al. (2019) have invesitgated the validity of Behaviourism in a game design context. “Based on Behaviourism, several gamification elements for instructional
games should be considered in the design and development of instructional games.” (P.6). They describe Behaviourism as an approach to monitor behavioural change upon the provision of stimuli, as such it can be a method to track player success. Aini Syed Ahmad list the following:
- Behavioural objectives-Denote expected outcomes for a task/game mission
- Score-A case of positive reinforcement when increasing and punishment when decreasing. Can be an indication of performance.
- Corrective feedback – An efficient method to inform achievement for players.
Other methods are identified by Aini Syed Ahmad et al. All of which belong to Behaviourism. Then it can be argued that Behaviourism is also an applicable pedagogical theory in regards to games.
Conclusion
The challenges faced when developing games that are able to communicate their controls and mechanics will increase further (Chiapello, 2016, p.2). There is still a gap in the exploitation of pedagogical theories for games design, but it has been shown that games design can certainly benefit from such studies, especially to better the delivery of knowledge and information like mechanics and controls of a game. Further research is needed to identify other possible solutions like the use of Constructivism and Behaviourism.
References
- Aini Syed Ahmad, T., Hussin, A. and Yusri, G., 2019. A review of learning theories for gamification elements in instructional games. In: Malaysian International Conference on Academic Strategies in English Language Teaching. [online] Kuala Pilah: MyCASELT. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336701970_A_review_of_learning_theories_for_gamification_elements_in_instructional_games> [Accessed 15 June 2021].
- Becker, K. (2008). The invention of good games: understanding learning design in commercial video games (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Calgary, Calgary, AB. Available at: <https://prism.ucalgary.ca/handle/1880/46734>. Accessed: [14/06/2021].
- Chiapello, L., 2016. From “spectator knowledge” to “pragmatic knowledge”: how a philosophical understanding of knowledge can help create better video game tutorials. In: The Philosophy of Computer Games Conference. Valletta, Malta. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311762173_From_spectator_knowledge_to_pragmatic_knowledge_how_a_philosophical_understanding_of_knowledge_can_help_create_better_video_game_tutorials/stats>. Accessed: [14/06/2021].
- Dondlinger, M., 2007. Educational Video Game Design: A Review of the Literature. Journal of Applied Educational Technology, [online] 4(1), pp.25-26. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238444705_Educational_Video_Game_Design_A_Review_of_the_Literature> [Accessed: 15/06/2021].
- Gee, J., 2003. What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy. Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), pp.20-20. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220686314_What_Video_Games_Have_to_Teach_Us_About_Learning_and_Literacy>. [Accessed: 15/06/2021].
- Hannafin, M. and Hannafin, K., 2009. Cognition and Student-Centered, Web-Based Learning: Issues and Implications for Research and Theory. Learning and Instruction in the Digital Age, p.11-23. [Accessed 3 May 2021].
- Hirtle, Jeannine St Pierre.English Journal, High school edition; Urbana Vol. 85, Iss. 1, (Jan 1996): 91.