MA Games design dev log

There are several theories that can be adopted for approaches in teaching. For this essay I will focus on both Behaviourism and Constructivism to build a framework to use in the case study. The reason why I have chosen these theories is that both of these have distinctly opposing approaches, this meaning that behaviourism is a teacher-led approach (Bélanger, 2011; Greenwood, 2020) and constructivism is student-centred (Harlow S. et al. 2007).

For this project I will model the student as described in a pedagogical setting to be the player and the teacher to be the tutorial and all that it entails.

Behaviourism

The Behaviourist teaching theory uses a process that first begins with observing the behaviour of students to see if they are learning as effectively as possible and then assessesing this behaviour. Behaviour being observable and discrete actions exhibited by students. For example the scores from a test can be used to observe if the student has learned and understood the content. This assessment results in feedback for that student, identifying strengths and impressing a rewarding experience. This is done in the hope that a positive bond is formed (Bélanger, 2011, p. 18). Part of this process is Operant Conditioning (Skinner, 1971), where reinforcement is applied. This reinforcement would be positive or negative (this being punishment to deter), for example in a classroom should a student answer correctly they are given praise to encourage such behaviour, if they act in an undesirable way then negative reinforcement is applied to discourage repeating it.

The structure of a behaviourist approach in a classroom is controlled and linear, it is directed by the teacher with distinct learning objectives for the students to achieve and these achievements are set against predicted set of behavioural outcomes. The content will be arranged from simple to complex (Bélanger, 2011, p. 19). As such there is an element of experimentation for the student, they would undergo a process of trial-and-error under such learning (Hean et al., 2009).

In terms of game tutorials this process may be the most useful with the following approaches:

• It encourages a rigid structure that begins with simple lessons. For a game tutorial, this would make sense as it cannot be assumed that every player possesses the same level of skill or knowledge in any given fighting game or game in general.
• Information is given in a direct manner, that is to say the teacher imparts knowledge in a controlled manner.
• The trial-and error process may be considered essential in any of the fighting game tutorials shown in the last log, these are designed in a way that players can make as many attempts at learning an attack or control.
• For the above process to work a tutorial would need to offer feedback as a way to confirm a successful attempt at an action.
• Trial-and-error can only work if there is something to experiment against, set tasks are used to demonstrate and show understanding of information in behaviourism (Greenwood, 2020). In a fighting game tutorial, this can be translated as the individual lessons on mechanics and controls.

My conclusion for behaviourism is that it would be most effective when being applied to individual lessons for mechanics, the repetitive nature of this approach is most suitable as it allows the player to make many attempts at the same lesson. All the while offering feedback to confirm successes.

However, what I observe is that this approach cannot identify the source of a learning difficulty. There is no way to measure or confirm that the player fully understands the mechanic, it can only be confirmed that they have completed that lesson.

Constructivism

This approach is student-centred. That is an approach that takes into account the student’s needs. Constructivists believe that “meaning is derived from and interpreted through individual beliefs, experiences and social contexts.”(Hannafin and Hannafin, 2009). This meaning in the classroom, new knowledge is built upon pre-existing knowledge and that new knowledge is either assimilated into their existing schema or a new schema is structured to accomodate new knowledge (Harlow et al., 2007).

Because constructivism is student-centred it is also student-led. Student inquiry is part of this process and that it is not a rigid process but needs to be flexible and accomodating (Hirtle, 1996). Because of this the learning process is more active, it cannot be teacher led as the student must make connections to prior knowledge and because of this, interpretations are subjective and may result in different learning outcomes (McLeod, 2019).

Constructivist teaching aims to provide experiences that facilitate construction of knowledge. These may be presented as reciprocal teaching where students teach each other. Another experience is Inquiry-Based learning where a student poses their own question and employs their own research and observations. The findings are then used to draw connections to previous knowledge. A different version of this is Problem-based learning where a real-world problem is given, then students must work together to form a solution.

For fighting game tutorials:

• A less rigid structure could be applied, as constructivism assumes a learners previous experience and knowledge. In tutorials, then the players prior knowledge and experience can be accounted for.
• The delivery of information is more free, while using lecture style lessons, students are also encouraged to ask questions. Methods of imparting knowledge may also involve other social elements too like presentations and group work. This can be seen as irrelelvant to an extent, however external discussions between players can help players understand and learn things about the game that may not be explicitly shown.
• A player should be able to choose what to learn. This follows from the above, instead of learning something the player may already know they could focus on a particular skill or knowledge gap concerning a mechanic or in-game skill.
• PBL and IBL can be employed to allow players to form their own solutions to in-game problems, as an example the game could present lessons or missions with a certain objective that can be completed using different skills learned from other parts of the game.

A pedagogical framework to use

What I gather from the above is that both of these approaches vary in the following areas between behaviourist and constructivist:

• Structure-The structure of the lessons can be varied. I see a Behaviourist structure as being sequential and scheduled, that is there is an order to the lessons and one must be learnt after the other. The constructivist approach, can be structured in a similar way but must take into account the learner’s previous knowledge, in effect the learner can attempt any lesson they wish.
• Delivery-The imparting of knowledge. In behaviourism the information is given in a direct format, the fighting game tutorial equivalent would be text instructions. A Constructivist approach would be allowing the player to query and answers their own questions for the game. In this case this would be a type of “free” mode where players could experiment with different mechanics in a suitable environment.
• Medium-What form does the information take. This could be shown as video, images, text or in-game demonstration.
• Methods-This area would consider how the teaching is carried out. What methods are used to teach the player the mechanics. What form does feedback take, if there is any. What incentives are employed. How does a player succeed in a lesson.

With these areas identified I will approach the case study with a comparative approach. The fighting game tutorials are from Injustice 2, Injustice 2 Legendary Edition and Mortal Kombat 11. These three tutorials captures NetheRealm’s change in approach in how the tutorial is presented and how it works. These changes were done in order to create more effective tutorials that would retain more players (Keschinger, 2020), ultimately resulting in a tutorial that had better onboarding. As such I will compare the approaches in these tutorials with the above areas, identifying which theory these tutorials tend towards.

References

• Bélanger, P., 2011. Three Main Learning Theories. Theories in Adult Learning and Education, [online] pp.17-34. Available at: <https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvbkjx77> [Accessed 7 May 2021].
• Buffalo.edu. 2021. Constructivism. [online] Available at: <http://www.buffalo.edu/ubcei/enhance/learning/constructivism.html> [Accessed 17 May 2021].
• Greenwood, B., 2020. What is Behaviourism and How to Use it in the Classroom?. [online] Blog.teamsatchel.com. Available at: <https://blog.teamsatchel.com/what-is-behaviourism-and-how-to-use-it-in-the-classroom> [Accessed 15 May 2021].
• Hannafin, M. and Hannafin, K., 2009. Cognition and Student-Centered, Web-Based Learning: Issues and Implications for Research and Theory. Learning and Instruction in the Digital Age, p.11-23. [Accessed 3 May 2021].
• Harlow S., Cummings R. & Suzanne M. Aberasturi (2007) Karl Popper and Jean Piaget: A Rationale for Constructivism, The Educational Forum, 71:1, 41-48, DOI: 10.1080/00131720608984566 [Accessed 3 May 2021].
• Hean, S., Craddock, D. and O’Halloran, C. (2009), Learning theories and interprofessional education: a user’s guide. Learning in Health and Social Care, 8: 250-262. https://doi-org.arts.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/j.1473-6861.2009.00227.x [Accessed 3 May 2021].
• Hirtle, J., 1996. Coming to Terms: Social Constructivism. The English Journal, 85(1), p.91. [Accessed 3 May 2021].
• Keschinger, B., 2020. Mastering Kombat: Designing Mortal Kombat 11’s Empowering Tutorial Mode. [online] Gdcvault.com. Available at: <https://www.gdcvault.com/play/1026766/Mastering-Kombat-Designing-Mortal-Kombat> [Accessed 17 May 2021].
• Norwich, B. and Lewis, A. (2001), Mapping a Pedagogy for Special Educational Needs. British Educational Research Journal, 27: 313-329. https://doi-org.arts.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/01411920120048322 [Accessed 5 May 2021].
• Mcleod, S., 2021. Constructivism as a Theory for Teaching and Learning | Simply Psychology. [online] Simplypsychology.org. Available at: <https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html> [Accessed 17 May 2021].
• Skinner, B., 1971. Operant Conditioning. In: The Encyclopedia of Education. New York: MacMillan, pp.29-33. Available at: http://butleratutb.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/55756771/Edith%20Costa%20Project%231.doc

Note: During this case study I had realised a better approach for the analysis would be to place the Medium area of analysis under Delivery, this is because the Medium of the knowledge can be analysed as a subset of how the knowledge is delivered in games. As such each game will be analysed in three areas instead of four. The Methods area will also examine the game for methods that can be identified as constructivist or behaviourist approaches methods.

I will be conducting a case study through the lens of constructivist and behaviourist pedagogical approaches in the following game tutorials:

• Injustice 2 (NetherRealm Studios, 2017)
• Injustice 2 Legendary Edition (NetherRealm Studios, 2018)
• Mortal Kombat 11 (NetherRealm Studios, 2019)

In this case the tutorial being the dedicated mode that has the purpose of teaching the player the mechanics and controls of the game. _{(See previous log for further details on tutorials: https://collaborative.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2021/05/11/better-teaching-in-fighting-game-tutorials-pt-2-whats-in-a-tutorial/)}

For each game I will consider:

• Structure of the tutorial content.
• The delivery or how players acquire the tutorial content.
• What methods from constructivist and behaviourist theories that can be identified in delivering the tutorial content.

I believe analysing these games’ tutorials in these areas will highlight which pedagogical approach they may align with, thereby possibly indicating which pedagogical approach (between behaviourist and constructivist) is the most effective for fulfilling a player’s learning needs. The learning needs in this case are the required knowledge and skills to engage with game mechanics at an advanced level. _{(See previous log for further details on Pedagogical approaches: https://collaborative.myblog.arts.ac.uk/2021/05/15/better-teaching-in-fighting-game-tutorials-pt-3-behaviourist-and-constructivist-pedagogical-theories/)}

In GDC 2020, Brian keschinger (2020) gave a talk on the changes to the tutorials in NetherRealm’s fighting games. This change had the intention of improving player retention and understanding of the game mechanics. In the talk he describes why changes were made and what implemented to design better tutorials. As such I will study these games alongside information given from that talk.

Injustice 2 (2017)

In this case, the delivery of information can be seen as behaviourist as they give discrete instructions and knowledge about the controls in a sequential fashion, this reflects the approach to the tutorial structure. This approach also ensures the player has been successful in each task the instructions give, this is because new instructions are only given upon successfully completing the current task. What works well is that the game ensures the player is successful in performing those actions. However, some of these lessons can be overwhelming and difficult especially for a first time player. There are 27 unique actions taught in the Basic lesson alone.

One constructivist solution is that the game will show an on-screen prompt that allows the player to view an A.I character performing this action (this feature is only available for select instructions). Another solution that is used is a practice match where the player fights against an A.I controlled character that is less capable, this is accompanied by a small list of actions to achieve. This too can be considered a constructivist approach as the player is allowed to experiment and use various actions previously taught. However this practice fight only happens in the first lesson. Overall, the approach for the lesson delivery is behaviourist due to the sequential tasks and their requirements that the player achieve each task. The delivery, while encompassing every control, does not allow for any flexibility, lessons cannot be skipped and every one of them must be attempted. It can be observed that constructivist methods are employed to further reinforce what has been taught.

Methods

These lessons use behaviourist methods when delivering knowledge such as repetition, the more complex actions like directional dodges must be completed a certain number of times. The implementation of this method is not uniform, some of the more arguably complex actions like combos are not presented as repetitivel tasks while others are. Repetitive tasks can be seen as suitable since the players familiarity with such controls would increase with each attempt. Another behaviourist method is the use of feedback, this comes in different forms in this tutorial. Upon completion of a lesson the player is given a positive message, encouraging further engagement with other lessons. There is also an extrinsic reward upon completion of all lessons, this being Crystals which is a type of in-game currency. For each task there is also some visual feedback highlighting successful attempts.

All of the tasks are given to the player as direct instructions, detailing exactly which button presses are required and using symbols to make this clear. This is another behaviourist method that is suitable in how it is used.

In terms of constructivist methods there is the employment of modelling (McLeod, 2019), in this case it is expressed as an A.I performing the actions for a task. This is used only on certain tasks, not all. One other constructivist method is experimentation(McLeod, 2019), upon learning the basic controls from the basic lesson, the player is allowed to fight against a less capable A.I controlled character using all of the actions learnt from previous lessons.

Overall, Injustice 2’s tutorial is pulling towards the behaviourist approach but there are some uses of constructivist methods. Most instances of the behaviourist approach seem suitable like the repetition of tasks. The lessons are also supplemented by constructivist methods too like modelling, these are more effective in some areas than others. Keschinger has expressed some of these lessons increase in difficulty to the point where players would give up attempting to finish a lesson.

“… the difficulty ramped up quickly, we have some data that shows that this one specific lesson on special move cancels had ten times the average dropout of the other lessons”. (Keschinger, 2020, 8:37).

Because of this, a significant number of players were not able to access the lessons after. As such there is room for a constructivist approach to be adapted. If there was a more open structure to the tutorial, then the more difficult lessons could be skipped, this does have a consequence of the player not fully understanding the controls however and if the next lesson relies on the previous lessons knowledge then it would compromise the tutorial.

Injustice 2 Legendary edition (2018)

Structure

The tutorial is organised in to five categories:

• Basic moves
• Advanced mechanics
• Combat strategy
• Characters
• Practice

The character category offers character specific tutorials that are similar to the previous tutorial approach.

Practice is a mode where players can set up matches with an opponent character with custom settings, these settings may define the state of the opponent. This can be many things including repeatedly performing a series of specified attacks, remain idle or apply a fighting A.I. This mode, while usually external from the tutorial lessons is still valuable to the player to fulfil their learning needs. This is because it allows the player to experiment and compose situations in fights to resolve or analyse. As such this can be considered as a constructivist method put in practice.

The Characters category is again the same in the previous 2017 version. No notable change in content or structure aside from additional characters.

Basic moves, Advanced mechanics and Combat strategy are the main categories that make up the tutorial, the amount of lessons are greater in this edition. Now all of the content is available from the beginning, this could be considered as a constructivist tendency as it allows the player to choose what to learn, the lessons are still designed to be played in a specific order. However, those players that have had experience with the game are able to choose lessons that compliment their learning needs. But there is no way to identify what their learning needs are, these players may need to explore the tutorial to find where their learning needs lie.

Within the Advanced Mechanics and Combat Strategy are sub-categories which hold several lessons and trials, trials being a playable section where players are given tasks to do without guidance, these trials are focused on reinforcing the skills and knowledge learned in the same category.

Another distinction from the previous edition is that there are several UI elements that reveal the players progress, showing how many lessons are completed in each category and which lessons are completed. Each sub-category also has animated thumbnails that preview the lessons and a list of lesson and trial titles to select from. This new approach to the UI can be seen as leaning towards constructivism as the player is given more information about the content and their own level of progress, allowing the player to reflect on what lessons they wish to engage with.

Delivery

The Legendary edition’s delivery of knowledge is largely similar to the previous, text instructions are still used, however in this edition keywords are colour coded to imply importance. This can be identified as a behaviourist element as it is a method of conditioning, the colour indicates importance and so ideally the player would recognise this.

Within a lesson, tasks are accompanied with the option of an A.I demonstration similar to the previous approach, however this differs in two ways. One is that it is now available for almost every task instead of a select few, another is that for every task there is an on-screen display image of a controller that highlights corresponding buttons presses in blue. This is implemented in combination with the A.I demonstration, during the demonstration the A.I button presses are highlighted in red, the player can also press buttons to emulate the red button presses. This serves to better teach the timing of button presses. This form of learning is largely optional, however it accomodates a player who struggles with a particular task, this can be seen as constructivist as it is additional information that facilitates their learning of the task.

A new addition is the text pop-up tip. Should the player find difficulty with a task a tip appears on-screen giving additional information on how best to succeed with the task. This difficulty that the player is experiencing is identified by a certain length of time being passed without the player succeeding. Because of this assessment of difficulty, it can be seen as a behaviorist addition as it identifies player difficulty based on their performance.

Methods

Operant conditioning (Skinner, 1971) is reinforced here as there are extrinsic rewards for every lesson completed as well as an additional reward for completing a sub category. This reinforces continuous engagement with the tutorial on the whole.

The same repetitive format of tasks is present here but in a larger quantity. These tasks are also accompanied with clearer and more instructive directions, considering the use of colour to highlight importance.

There is also the implementation of a visual timer for certain tasks, this timer teaches the timing of button presses for mechanics like combos. This timer also offers instant feedback, showing successful or failed attempts for button inputs. This too is a behaviourist convention as the player is shown by the game their skill gap lies. However, this is implemented in a way that encourages experimentation (constructivist), the player can attempt this until they succeed. This allows the player to experiment different timings for button inputs.

Other instances of constructivist experimentation is the inclusion of the practice mode within the tutorial (titled as learn mode in this edition). Previously it was outside of the tutoiral as a different mode. There are also trials which allow players to experiment with a specific challenge.

There is also the use of scaffolding (Sarikas, 2020), a constructivist method, that gradually increases complexity and removes supportive elements as the player progresses throughout the tutorial. This is evident in the inclusion of trials as described above. In a sub-category lessons are listed first and then trials are listed after, trials are considerably more complex as they instruct tasks and give no supporting information. Scaffolding is also evident in the overall strucutre of the tutorial, that is the increasing complexity from one category to another. The text instructions are simpler and fewer in Basic mechanics especially when compared to Combat Strategy lessons, these lessons use multiple text pop-ups to describe information like frame data.

Mortal Kombat 11 (2019)

Structure

In Mortal Kombat, the tutorial is titled as the learn mode, this being similar to the tutorial in Injustice 2 Legendary edition, here the learn mode is composed of three different categories:

• Practice – this is no different than the other implementations of the practice mode.
• Tutorial – this is where all the game lessons can be found.
• Fatality training – A mode dedicated to practicing the execution of a mechanic known as the fatality, upon inspection there is nothing that is unique in terms of implementation.

Focusing on the Tutorial category, there are four categories within the tutorial:

• Basic tutorial – Short set of lessons dedicated to teach the player the basics of the game.
• Advanced – Contains three sub-categories, all of which have a list of lessons to select from.
• Strategy – Similar to the advanced category only with an focus on complex mechanics.
• Character – Offers lessons on individual characters of the players choosing. Similar to Injustice 2 and the legendary edition.

Overall the structure does not change so much, there is the addition of text that further describes the content of each category, this aids the player in making more informed choices and helps them decide what lessons are most suitable for them. This can be considered as a more player centred approach.

Delivery

Mortal Kombat uses Injustice 2 Legendary edition’s learning mode and develops further, enhancing the core approaches and elements already there. For example the on-screen controller that reflects the player input is now accompanied with audio cues, this was done to better impart the timing of controller inputs. This use of audio cues is apparent in other parts of the tutorials. If a player successfully completes a task a specific audio cue is played, this is prominent when a repetitive task is given, the audio cue is played with every successful attempt. A different audio cue is also played upon the completion of a lesson.

This form of audio feedback is also reflected with visual feedback too, there are time sensitive actions that require players to react. The lessons freezes the game at the moment of input, shading the character in colour. This approach was used in Injustice 2 Legendary edition, but in Mortal Kombat this shading of character has been expanded to include different colours to better communicate frame data.

• 

• 

Both of these changes in feedback are an inherent property of behaviourism as they serve the purpose of highlighting failure and success, making it clear to the player what is needed to succeed.

Another behaviourist element in the delivery is the unique selection of characters, certain characters are selected for certain lessons (Keschinger, 2020). For example, lessons in blocking use the character Jade because her attacks are highly telegraphed and easy to anticipate, while the character the player uses in this lesson is able to react with clarity. This adjustment in the use of characters also helps players expand in their familiarity with other character playing styles, this is a behaviourist approach as it is a controlled and directed, but it has a constructivist consequence as the player is exposed to different characters to learn from.

Methods

The approach to the lessons in Mortal Kombat are moving towards behaviourist approaches, specifically what can be seen as controlled practice (Controlled practice, 2021), here there is more feedback used to reinforce and highlight correct behaviour for the player.

In fact there is less emphasis on an independency in the tutorial lessons, the trials from Injustice 2 Legendary edition are removed entirely and now focus only on lessons. However, text pop-up messages at the end of some lessons encourage the player to experiment in practice mode to replicate the tasks with different characters.

This inclusion of the practice mode is behaviourist in nature as players can take what they have learned from the lessons and apply it to different situations with different characters, they can experiment and build upon what they have already learned. The practice mode can be considered as a form of problem based learning as players can create or encounter situations of their own choosing, allowing players to construct their own solution to that situtation.

Conclusion

There is a large change in the approach between Injustice 2(2017) and Mortal Kombat (2019), the change takes place in nearly all areas from the structure of the tutorial to how the lessons are presented. In Injustice 2, the approach can be seen as largely behaviourist with some leanings towards constructivism. This approach has been found to be detrimental in fulfilling the player’s learning needs and is detrimental to player retainment (Keschinger, 2020).

Injustice 2 Legendary edition’s tutorial exapanded the learning content, it’s possible to see this as a constructivist approach as the additional content was built to accomodate players of varying skill and knowledge. Keschinger explains that this change was motivated by a need to increase player retention (2020, 10:33), they developed a taxonomy that identified different levels of players, their goal with this tutorial was to further engage players and potentially move them towards the competitive end (2020, 15:50). This can be seen as fulfilling the player’s learning needs on the whole, certainly by implementing methods that have a constructivist nature that is apparent in the structure of the tutorial.

However, between these three games’ tutorials, the lower level elements of the tutorial being the lessons, the tasks and instructions have more behaviourist developments over time. As such it can be seen that a behaviourist approach in the lower levels of the tutorial is most effective in teaching the discrete mechanics and controls of a fighting game. But the tutorial would benefit from a constructivist approach to it’s structure.

This is proven in the Mortal Kombat 11 tutorial as the practice mode is more ingrained in the tutorial structure, but there is more evidence of behaviourist methods in the lesson-to-lesson activity, consider the use of visual and audio cues.

In the case of these NetherRealm games, there is a balance between constructivist and behaviourist approaches. At the highest level a constructivist approach is the most suitable, it allows players freedom to choose what knowledge to acquire and accomodates a player’s varying learning needs as player skill can vary greatly, especially with fighting games. In order to communicate and teach the player well, a more behaviourist approach can benefit the player as it offers instant feedback. The nature of fighting game mechanics are demanding and require quick reflexes and knowledge of the game’s systems, this is taught with a behaviourist approach. There is still room for some constructivist elements too at this level, consider the use of A.I demonstrations and practice fights. These allow the player to learn in a less direct manner than text instructions and encourages experimentation. An important consequence is that winning a practice fight aids in the process of onboarding (Salmond, 2016, p. 211) the player, combining this with player celebration and rewards helps incentivizing the player to learn and play more (Keschinger, 2020, 19:05).

It can be seen these fighting games benefit from a balance between behaviourism and constructivism. The implementation of both of these approaches must be carefully considered as one approach can undermine another. Look to Injustice 2(2017), the character tutorial is available from the beginning, a constructivist choice but this requires some advanced knowledge that is locked in the other lessons of that tutorial. A consequence of this is that the player may become confused as the lessons may instruct the player on mechanics they are not familiar with. As such the fighting game tutorial can be composed of both pedagogical approaches with a carefully curated balance between these approaches.

Bibliography

• Dynasty. (2017, March 21). Injustice 2: New Updated Training Mode & “Learn Hub” Feature Fully REVEALED! (Legendary Edition). Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5lj6BKI4Tw&t=3s [Accessed: 24 May 2021]
• Keschinger, B. (2020, August 4-6). Mastering Kombat: Designing Mortal Kombat 11’s Empowering Tutorial Mode [Conference Presentation]. 2020 Games Developers Conference. Available at: https://www.gdcvault.com/play/1026766/Mastering-Kombat-Designing-Mortal-Kombat [Accessed: 12 May 2021]
• McLeod, S. A. (2019, July 17). Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html [Accessed: 5 May 2021]
• Salmond, M. (2016). Video Game Design: Principles and Practices from the Ground Up. London: Fairchild Books. From http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474222426 [Accessed: 5 May 2021]
• PS360HD. (2017, May 16). INJUSTICE 2 – Tutorial Mode Walkthrough (1080p 60fps). Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oIhomqZQ8as [Accessed: 20 May 2021]
• Sarikas, C. (2020, January 4) Vygotsky Scaffolding: What It Is and How to Use It. [online] Blog.prepscholar.com. Available at: <https://blog.prepscholar.com/vygotsky-scaffolding-zone-of-proximal-development> [Accessed 24 May 2021].
• Skinner, B., 1971. Operant Conditioning. In: The Encyclopedia of Education. New York: MacMillan, pp.29-33. Available at: http://butleratutb.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/55756771/Edith%20Costa%20Project%231.docx [Accessed: 25 April 2021]
• TeachingEnglish | British Council | BBC. 2021. Controlled practice. [online] Available at: <https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/controlled-practice> [Accessed 24 May 2021].

Ludography

• NetherRealm Studios (2017). Injustice 2. [Video game] Android, iOS, Playstation 4, Xbox One, Microsoft Windows. Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.
• NetherRealm Studios (2018). Injustice 2: Legendary Edition. [Video game] Android, iOS, Playstation 4, Xbox One, Microsoft Windows. Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.
• NetherRealm Studios, Shiver Entertainment, QLOC (2019). Mortal Kombat 11. [Video game] Microsoft Windows, Nintendo Switch, Playstation 4, Xbox One, Stadia, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S. Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment.

Part of my essay will be focusing on fighting game tutorials. So one thing I should consider is what is a tutorial? What is it’s purpose? What components are used and how does a developer go about creating one?

The tutorial by definition

The interactive tutorial was a way of replacing the physical game manual that usually came with the copy of a game. Doing things this way allowed players to learn how to play the game while playing the game (Burgun, 2017). This can be presented to the player as a simple level that utilises tips and instructions (Perry, 2009) showing the player the controls and how to play the game. Salmond (2016: 208) notes that while the tutorial is teaching the player, it also “is revealing the entirety of the game mechanic. Level 1 establishes game tone, story arc, play mechanic, and the environment.”

In that sense the tutorial is not just a section of the game to teach the player how to play but also a method introduce the player to other elements of the game. These other elements could be features of the game (Wagner, 2012), the narrative or the environment (Salmond, 2016).

For this project I will define a tutorial as a playable section of the game that aims to teach and instruct the player on how to play the game which may attempt to present components such as controls, mechanics and tips. These may be taught to the player with various methods including text instructions, video demonstrations or even vague suggestions like the level design in Level 1-1 in Super Mario Bros. (Nintendo, 1985).

A subset of the tutorial, as described by Salmond (2020, p. 211 ), is the Onboarding process that also takes place wherein the player is introduced to the narrative, the tone and environment that the game employs. The player is also given positive reinforcement in succeeding the tutorial. As such the player should understand how to play the game and what the game is about, more importantly they are encouraged to engage with the rest of the game and to learn more. This applies heavily to fighting games.

What’s a fighting game?

In issue #15 of NEXT generation magazine, there was a written lexicon for game terminology. Their written of a Fighting Game is: “A game which consists of one-on-one duels between two characters. One controlled by the player. The other controlled by either another player or the computer. The fighting may be executed hand-to hand but characters may also use weapons or have supernatural powers such as the ability to throw fireballs.” (1996: 34).

While there are fighting games that accommodate more than two characters in a fight like the Super Smash bros series(Nintendo, 1999), this definition is still useful and correlates with Ernest Adams description of a fighting game. “These games simulate hand-to-hand combat, usually using highly exaggerated moves…” (Adams, 2009: 397). He also describes a fighting game to have mechanically intense features that require a high level of physical skill to accomplish such as the combo: “the player would execute an especially effective or spectacular attack if she could rapidly issue a particular sequence of buttons and joystick maneuvers.” (Adams, 2009: 398) There are other mechanics that are just as complex and physically demanding which extend on the basic controls of a fighting game.(Daniels, 2013). Another feature of fighting games is that they feature a large cast of characters all of which have distinct attacks and abilities that players need to learn too.

As such, a well designed tutorial would be necessary to teach the player these mechanics, as well as other systems in a fighting game.

What’s in a fighting game tutorial?

While there are many games within the fighting game genre, the conventional controls are very similar. The thumbstick/direction-pad are responsible for character movement and the other buttons are used for performing different attacks or abilities. A number of fighting games assume the player already knows this and other such controls, overall it is difficult for players without prior experience to play such fighting games (Bevill, 2012; Edwards, 2018; Miller, 2020).

Some fighting games teach these simple controls in the tutorial. In Street Fighter V(Capcom, 2016), players assume control of a character. They are then given text instructions to perform actions.

There is also a separate training mode where the player may also start a level and choose characters to play as against an NPC. This mode allows the player to automate the NPC to perform specific actions like attacking or blocking. The player can then experiment and learn different attacks or strategies to counter the NPC. This mode is heavily self-directed and does require prior knowledge to utilise effectively. This mode also offers telemetry on controller inputs, frame data and attack data.

However other games elect not to include a distinct tutorial mode or section. In Tekken 7 (Bandai Namco Studios, 2015) there is no tutorial. Instead the tutorial’s responsibilities, these being teaching the player the controls and onboarding them, are transferred to the story mode (Bailey, 2021).

As such the story mode imparts narrative and teaches the player how to play the game at the same time. I would argue that Tekken 7’s story mode is a tutorial due tot he fact that it serves to teach the player the controls of the game. Both Street Fighter V and Tekken 7 have similar approaches to their tutorials, that is by introducing context, story and teaching the player the controls of the game.

In Guilty Gear Xrd -Revelator-(Arc System Works, 2016), it can be argued that the three modes “Tutorial”, “Combo” and “Mission” compose the tutorial. This is because they serve to teach the player how to play the game (Hou, 2021). This also makes use of playable sections where the player is promtped with text instructions as well as voiced instructions. Upon receiving instructions the player must attempt to perform the actions described.

With these examples I can say that fighting game tutorials implement the use of text instructions and symbols to communicate controls for the game. These are used within playable sections of the game which may involve narrative elements and have the goal of teaching the player how to play the game. This may be supplemented by video demonstrations and UI prompts that reflect the player controller inputs. Some games have more depth in their tutorials than others, Guilty Gear Xrd -Revelator- implements different modes dedicated to different levels of complexity. These modes range from teaching the most basic controls to advanced mechanics like combos (successive chains of attack inputs) and character specific strategies and combos. While others offer less depth like Street Fighter V, the tutorial is one playable section that is supplemented with a training mode where players can test themselves against an NPC.

References

• Adams, E., 2009. Fundamentals of game design. [Book] 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: New Riders.
• Arc System Works, 2016. Guilty Gear Xrd -Revelator-. [Video game] Arcade, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Microsoft Windows. Aksys games, Arc System Works, Sega, Sony Interactive Entertainment Europe.
• Bailey, D., 2021. Tekken has dropped tutorials because players don’t use them. [online] PCGamesN. Available at: <https://www.pcgamesn.com/tekken-7/tekken-7-tutorial> [Accessed 12 May 2021].
• Bandai Namco Studios (2015). Tekken 7. [Video game] Playstation 4, Xbox One, Microsoft Windows, Arcade. Bandai Namco Entertainment.
• Bevill, R., 2012. Standard fighting game controls alienate potential players. [Blog] Gamasutra, Available at: <https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/RobertBevill/20120616/172502/Standard_fighting_game_controls_alienate_potential_players.php> [Accessed 12 May 2021].
• Capcom et al., 2016. Street Fighter V. [Video Game] Playstation 4, Microsoft Windows, Arcade. Capcom.
• Daniels, D., 2013. Fighting Game Mechanics. [Blog] Derek Daniels, Available at: <http://derekdaniels.com/blog/2013/6/13/fighting-game-mechanics> [Accessed 11 May 2021].
• Edwards, M., 2018. The Esoteric Design of Fighting Games. [Blog] Gamasutra, Available at: <https://www.gamasutra.com/blogs/MauriceEdwards/20180521/318408/The_Esoteric_Design_of_Fighting_Games.php> [Accessed 12 May 2021].
• Hou, P., 2021. Fighting Game Tutorials That Teach the Fundamentals. [online] CBR. Available at: <https://www.cbr.com/fighting-game-tutorials-teach-fundamentals/> [Accessed 13 May 2021].
• Miller, P., 2020. Why fighting games are hard. [Blog] Pat the Flip, Available at: <https://pattheflip.medium.com/why-fighting-games-are-hard-7d6d423028ff> [Accessed 12 May 2021].
• Nintendo EAD (1985). Super Mario Bros. [ROM cartridge] Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo Vs. System. Nintendo.
• Nintendo(1999). Super Smash Bros.
• Next Generation, 1996. Lexicon A to Z. [online] (15), p.33. Available at: <https://archive.org/details/nextgen-issue-015/page/n33/mode/2up> [Accessed 11 May 2021].
• Salmond, M. (2016). Video Game Design: Principles and Practices from the Ground Up. London: Fairchild Books. From http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781474222426 [Accessed: 5 May 2021]

For this project I want to look at how approaches in teaching can help inform and improve the development of tutorials in games. These approaches being pedagogical practices that are used during the teaching/learning process. [https://www.tes.com/news/what-is-pedagogy-definition]. A video game tutorial being the tool that teaches the player the rules and controls of the game. [https://gamedevelopment.tutsplus.com/tutorials/the-many-ways-to-show-the-player-how-its-done-with-in-game-tutorials–gamedev-400]

Research question

The current proposed research question I have decided to investigate is:

What can be used from pedagogical/andragogical approaches to develop tutorial levels in games.

This was inspired by my background in education, I’ve had experience in delivering educaitonal content and developing it, as well as aiding in lessons. I believe the skills I had acquired in that setting can be applied to game design. For this project I will specifically focus on tutorial levels in game design. I will identify what practices are useful in education and see how they can be applied to tutorial design in games.

Definitions

Pedagogy/Andragogy – These are defined as the method and study of teaching. Andragogy has a focus on adult learning.

Within the pedagogy there are pedagogical approaches, these being the way a teacher delivers the content of the curriculum to the class. [Different approaches] The following approaches are used:

• Behaviourism-Focuses on observing the actions of students and assesses if they are learning effectively. This relies on continuous assessment like homework and tests. [Source]
• Constructivism-A student-centred approach and considers the students needs. This focuses on facilitating the students learning with projects and activities. They are given the content and try to form their own understanding. [Source]
• Social Constructivism-This approach takes principles from the above but with the added element of social communication. Students understanding of a subject is resulted in communication between others, they would discuss their ideas and come to conclusions that are tested for viability. [Source]
• Liberationism-Heavily focuses on the student, this approach allows the student to choose what they wish to learn. This directly rejects other approaches as it democratises the classroom, the teacher faciltiates their learning, encouraging critical thinking on the subject and discussion. Students would ask more questions about the subject. There is also a focus on fulfilling differnet learning styles [Source]

There are many others too and for this project only few would be examined.

Tutorial-Is the interactive learning experience that teaches the player the mechanics of the game. This can take many forms like the first level of a game, an optional playable section, or a series of text/video. In Video game design: principles and practices from the ground up by Michael salmond writes “Level 1 establishes game tone, story arc, play mechanic, and the environment. Everything else evolves from that first level and gets the player on-board with the game.” I should look ot other sources for different definitions of tutorials, just to get a range of definitions to draw from.

Games for a case study

Some consideration needs to be taken for what tutorials I will look at for a case study. I would want to identify the different approaches and components of these tutorials and how they are used in different games. I would want to consider how these games teach their mechanics to the player, what mediums are used and how the tutorial is structured.

I am considering using a variety of games’ tutorials, a variety meaning they will vary in their approach and what kind of mechanics they teach. The current selection for this list is:

• Portal-The tutorial is also the first level of the game. This tutorial makes of use pop-up text boxes explaining controls, a narrator explaining the context and other mechanics. As well as in-game demonstrations of mechanics.
• XCOM: Enemy unknown-Similar to the above the tutorial is the first level of the game, a narrator is present and directs the player to perform actions. Doing so teaches the player fundamental mechanics of the like shooting and moving.
• Super Mario Bros.-There is no definite tutorial level, again the approach is that the tutorial is the first level of the game. In Level 1-1, the player is allowed space and time to get used to the controls and understand how to interact with the game. Every moment for each mechanic is given enough time to practice it and let the player understand what they can do with it. For example the game begins with the player character on the far left side, in front is dead space letting the player understand that they must go forward towards the right.

However, there is the danger that this may spiral out of scope. I could use a series of games and focus on how their tutorials change over each game in that series and compare those changes.

Mortal Kombat X(2015), Mortal Kombat 11(2019) and Injustice 2(2017)-While the core mechanics of these game are similar and do not change greatly, their approach to tutorials differ greatly. In Injustice 2, the structure of the tutorials are seperate sections of the game that sepcifcally teach and test specific mechanics and controls. These taught in a linear order. In Mortal Kombat 11, the tutorial is flexible and allows the player to choose between different mechanics to learn.

The next step for this project is to decide what games to examine for the case study. Doing so would also change what teaching approaches I can use, this meaning that if I would look at a variety of games then I would examine a varierty of teaching approaches. If I focus on a game series, then I would examine a small amount of teaching approaches that seem appropriate for the series.